Over the past few decades, vulnerabilities in the Windows Kernel have emerged frequently. The popular attack surface has gradually shifted from Win32k to CLFS (Common Log File System). Microsoft has continuously patched these vulnerabilities, making these targets increasingly secure. However, which component might become the next attack target? Last year, MSKSSRV (Microsoft Kernel Streaming Service) became a popular target for hackers. However, this driver is tiny and can be analyzed in just a few days. Does this mean there might not be new vulnerabilities?
This research will discuss an overlooked attack surface that allowed us to find more than ten vulnerabilities within two months. Additionally, we will delve into a proxy-based logical vulnerability type that allows us to bypass most validations, enabling us to successfully exploit Windows 11 in Pwn2Own Vancouver 2024.
(This research will be divided into several parts, each discussing different bug classes and vulnerabilities. This research was also presented at HITCON CMT 2024.)
Start from MSKSSRV
For vulnerability research, looking at historical vulnerabilities is indispensable.
Initially, we aimed to challenge Windows 11 in Pwn2Own Vancouver 2024. Therefore, we began by reviewing past Pwn2Own events and recent in-the-wild Windows vulnerabilities, searching for potential attack surfaces. Historical trends show that Win32K, primarily responsible for handling GDI-related operations, has always been a popular target, with numerous vulnerabilities still emerging. Since 2018, CLFS (Common Log File System) has also gradually become a popular target. Both components are extremely complex, suggesting that there are likely still many vulnerabilities. However, becoming familiar with these components requires significant time, and many researchers are already examining them. Therefore, we did not choose to analyze them first.
Last year, after Synacktiv successfully exploited a vulnerability in MSKSSRV to compromise Windows 11 during Pwn2Own 2023, many researchers began to focus on this component. Shortly thereafter, a second vulnerability ,CVE-2023-36802, was discovered. At this time, chompie also published an excellent blog post detailing this vulnerability and its exploitation techniques. Given that this component is very small, with a file size of approximately 72 KB, it might only take a few days of careful examination to fully understand it. Therefore, we chose MSKSSRV for historical vulnerability analysis, with the hopeful prospect of identifying other vulnerabilities.
We will briefly discuss these two vulnerabilities but not go into much detail.
CVE-2023-29360 - logical vulnerability
The first one is the vulnerability used by Synacktiv in Pwn2Own Vancouver 2023.
This is a logical vulnerability in the MSKSSRV driver. When MSKSSRV uses MmProbeAndLockPages to lock user-specified memory address as framebuffer, the AccessMode was not set correctly. This leads to a failure to check whether the user-specified address belongs to the user space. If the user provides a kernel address, it will map the specified kernel address to user space for the user to use. Ultimately, this allows the user to write data to any address in the kernel. The exploitation is simple and very stable, making it become one of the most popular vulnerabilities.
For more details, please refer to Synacktiv’s presentation at HITB 2023 HKT and Nicolas Zilio(@Big5_sec)‘s blog post.
CVE-2023-36802 - type confusion
This vulnerability was discovered shortly after CVE-2023-29360 was released. It was already being exploited when Microsoft released their patches. This is a very easily discovered vulnerability. It uses the objects (FSContextReg, FSStreamReg) stored in FILE_OBJECT->FsContext2 for subsequent processing. However, there is no check on the type of FsContext2, leading to type confusion. For detailed information, you can refer to the IBM X-Force blog, which provides a very thorough explanation.
Since then, there have been very few vulnerabilities related to MSKSSRV. Due to its relatively small size, MSKSSRV is quickly reviewed, and gradually, fewer and fewer people pay attention to it.
But is that the end of it ?
However, does this mean there are no more vulnerabilities?
In fact, the entire Kernel Streaming looks like the diagram below:
MSKSSRV is just the tip of the iceberg. In fact, there are many other potential components, and those listed in the diagram above are all part of Kernel Streaming. After delving into this attack surface, numerous vulnerabilities were eventually discovered, flowing like a stream.
By the way, while I was writing this blog, chompie also published about the vulnerability she used in this year’s Pwn2Own Vancouver 2024, CVE-2024-30089, which is also a vulnerability in MSKSSRV. The vulnerability lies in handling the reference count, requiring a lot of attention and thought to discover. It is also quite interesting, but I won’t discuss it here. I highly recommend reading this one.
Brief overview of Kernel Streaming
So, what is Kernel Streaming? In fact, we use it very frequently.
On Windows systems, when we open the webcam, enable sound, and activate audio devices such as microphones, the system needs to write or read related data such as your voice and captured images from your devices into RAM. It is essential to read data into your computer more efficiently during this process. Microsoft provides a framework called Kernel Streaming to handle these data, which primarily operates in kernel mode. It features low latency, excellent scalability, and a unified interface, making handling streaming data more convenient and efficient.
In Microsoft’s Kernel Streaming, three multimedia class driver models are provided: port class, AVStream, and stream class. We will briefly introduce port class and AVStream, as stream class is less common and more outdated and will not be discussed here.
Port class
This type of driver is mostly used for PCI and DMA-based audio device hardware drivers. Currently, most audio-related processing, such as volume control or microphone-related processing, falls into this category. The main component library used would be portcls.sys.
AVStream
AVStream is a multimedia driver provided by Microsoft that primarily supports video-only and integrated audio/video streaming. Currently, most video-related processing, such as your webcam, capture card, etc., is associated with this category.
In fact, the use of Kernel Streaming is also very complex. We will only provide a brief description. For more detailed information, please refer to Microsoft Learn.
Interact with device
When we want to interact with audio devices or webcams, we need to open the device just like with any other device. Essentially, it interacts with the device driver in the same way. So, what would the names of these types of devices be? These names are not typically like \Device\NamedPipe, but rather something like the following:
\\?\hdaudio#subfunc_01&ven_8086&dev_2812&nid_0001&subsys_00000000&rev_1000#6&2f1f346a&0&0002&0000001d#{6994ad04-93ef-11d0-a3cc-00a0c9223196}\ehdmiouttopo
Enumerate device
Here you can use APIs such as SetupDiGetClassDevs to enumerate devices. Generally, KS series devices are registered under KSCATEGORY*, such as audio devices which are registered under KSCATEGORY_AUDIO.
Additionally, you can use the APIs provided by KS, such as KsOpenDefaultDevice, to obtain the handle of the first matching PnP device in that category. Actually, it is just a wrapper around SetupDiGetClassDevs and CreateFile.
hr=KsOpenDefaultDevice(KSCATEGORY_VIDEO_CAMERA,GENERIC_READ|GENERIC_WRITE,&g_hDevice)Kernel Streaming object
After we open these devices, Kernel Streaming will create some Kernel Streaming related instances, the most important of which are KS Filters and KS Pins.
These will be used during the Kernel Streaming process. We will only provide a brief introduction here. We will use audio filters as an example, as most others are quite similar.
KS filters
Each KS Filter typically represents a device or a specific function of a device. When we open an audio device, it usually corresponds to a KS filter object. When we read data from the audio device, this data is first processed through this KS Filter.
Conceptually, as shown in the diagram below, the large box in the middle represents a KS filter for the audio device. When we want to read data from the audio device, it is read into the filter from the left, processed through several nodes, and then output from the right.
(From: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/audio/audio-filters)
KS pins
In the figure above, the points for reading and outputting data are called pins. The kernel also has corresponding KS pin Objects to describe the Pins, recording whether the Pin is a sink or a source, the data format for input and output, and so on. When we use it, we must open a pin on the filters to create an instance to read from or write to the device.
KS property
Each of these KS objects will have its own property, and each property corresponds to a specific feature. For instance, the data format mentioned earlier in the Pin, the volume level, and the status of the device are all properties. These properties typically correspond to a set of GUIDs. We can set these properties through IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY.
This greatly simplifies the development of multimedia drivers and ensures consistency and scalability across different devices.
Read streams from webcam
Here is a simple example illustrating how an application can read data from a webcam.
The most basic flow is roughly shown in this diagram:
- Open the device to obtain the device handle.
- Use this device handle to create an instance of the Pin on this filter and obtain the Pin handle.
- Use
IOCTL_KS_PROPERTYto set the device state of the Pin to RUN. - Finally, you can use IOCTL_KS_READ_STREAM to read data from this Pin.
Kernel Streaming architecture
For vulnerability research, we must first understand its architecture and consider the potential attack surfaces.
After gaining a preliminary understanding of the functionalities and operations of Kernel Streaming, we need to understand the architecture to find vulnerabilities. It’s crucial to know how Windows implements these functions and what components are involved. This way, we can identify which sys files to analyze and where to start.
After our analysis, the overall architecture looks approximately like this diagram:
In the Kernel Streaming components, the most important ones are ksthunk.sys and ks.sys. Almost all functionalities are related to them.
ksthunk (Kernel Streaming WOW Thunk Service Driver)
ksthunk.sys is the entry point in Kernel Streaming. Its function is quite simple: it converts 32-bit requests from the WoW64 process into 64-bit requests, allowing the underlying driver to handle the requests without additional processing for 32-bit structures.
ks (Kernel Connection and Streaming Architecture Library)
ks.sys is one of the core components of Kernel Streaming. It is the library of Kernel Streaming responsible for forwarding requests such as IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY to the corresponding device driver, and it also handles functions related to AVStream.
The work flow of IOCTL_KS_*
IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY will be used as an example here. When calling DeviceIoControl, as shown in the figure below, the user’s request will be sequentially passed to the corresponding driver for processing.
At step 6, ks.sys will determine which driver and handler to hand over your request based on the KSPROPERTY you requested.
Finally, forward it to the corresponding driver, as shown in the figure above, where it is ultimately forwarded to the handler in portcls to operate the audio device.
You should now have a preliminary understanding of the architecture and process of Kernel Streaming. Next, it’s time to look for vulnerabilities.
Based on the existing elements, which attack surfaces are worth examining?
From attacker’s view
Before digging for vulnerabilities, if you can carefully consider under what circumstances they are likely to occur, you can achieve twice the result with half the effort.
From a vulnerability researcher’s perspective, there are a few key points to consider:
1. Property handler in each device
KS object for each device has its own properties, and each property has its own handler. Some properties are prone to issues during handling.
2. ks and ksthunk
ks and ksthunk have not had vulnerabilities for a long time, but they are the most accessible entry points and might be good targets. The last vulnerabilities(CVE-2020-16889 and CVE-2020-17045) were found in 2020 by @nghiadt1098.
3. Each driver handles a part of the content
In some functionalities of Kernel Streaming, certain drivers handle parts of the input individually, which may lead to inconsistencies.
After reviewing Kernel Streaming from the above perspectives, we quickly identified several relatively easy-to-discover vulnerabilities.
- portcls.sys
- CVE-2024-38055 (out-of-bounds read when set dataformat for Pin)
- CVE-2024-38056
- ksthunk
- CVE-2024-38054 (out-of-bounds write)
- CVE-2024-38057
However, we will not be explaining these vulnerabilities one by one. Most of these are obvious issues such as unchecked length or index leading to out-of-bounds access. @Fr0st1706 also wrote an exploit for CVE-2024-38054 recently. We might slowly explain these in subsequent parts in the future. We will leave this for the readers to study for now.
During the review process, we discovered some interesting things. Do you think the following code snippet is really fine?
__int64 __fastcall CKSThunkDevice::CheckIrpForStackAdjustmentNative(__int64 a1, struct _IRP *irp, __int64 a3, int *a4)
{
if ( irp->RequestorMode )
{
v14 = 0xC0000010;
}
else
{
UserBuffer = (unsigned int *)irp->UserBuffer;
...
v14 = (*(__int64 (__fastcall **)(_QWORD, _QWORD, __int64 *)) (Type3InputBuffer + 0x38))(// call Type3InputBuffer+0x38
*UserBuffer,
0LL,
v19);
}
}
Seeing this code reminds me of CVE-2024-21338. Initially, the vulnerability had no checks, but after patching, ExGetPreviousMode was added. However, the check here uses the RequestorMode in IRP for validation. Generally, the RequestorMode from a user-called IOCTL will be UserMode(1), so there shouldn’t be any issues.
At this point, I also recall James Forshaw’s article Windows Kernel Logic Bug Class: Access Mode Mismatch in IO Manager.
The overlooked bug class
First, we need to mention a few terms and concepts. If you are already familiar with Previous Mode and RequestorMode, you can skip to A logical bug class section.
PreviousMode
The first one is PreviousMode. In an Application, if a user operates on a device or file through Nt* System Service Call, upon entering the kernel, it will be marked as UserMode(1) in _ETHREAD’s PreviousMode, indicating that this System Service Call is from the user. Conversely, if it is called from kernel mode, such as a device driver invoking the Zw* System Service Call, it will be marked as KernelMode(2).
RequestorMode
Another similar field is the RequestorMode in the IRP. This field records whether your original request came from UserMode or KernelMode. In kernel driver code, this is a very commonly used field, typically derived from PreviousMode.
It is often used to decide whether to perform additional checks on user requests, such as Memory Access Check or Security Access Check. In the example below, if the request comes from UserMode, it will check the user-provided address. If it comes from the Kernel, no additional checks are performed to increase efficiency.
But in reality, this has also led to some issues.
A logical bug class
James Forshaw’s Windows Kernel Logic Bug Class: Access Mode Mismatch in IO Manager mentions a type of Bug Class.
What would happen if a user calls a System Service Call like NtDeviceIoControlFile, and then the driver handling it uses user-controllable data as parameters for ZwOpenFile?
After the driver calls ZwOpenFile, PreviousMode will switch to KernelMode, and when it uses NtOpenFile processing, most checks will be skipped due to PreviousMode being KernelMode. Subsequently, Irp->RequestorMode will become KernelMode, bypassing the Security Access Check and Memory Access Check. However, this largely depends on how the subsequent driver implements these checks. There might be issues if it relies solely on RequestorMode to decide whether to perform checks The actual situation is slightly more complex and related to the flags of CreateFile. For details, refer to the following articles:
- Windows Kernel Logic Bug Class: Access Mode Mismatch in IO Manager
- Hunting for Bugs in Windows Mini-Filter Drivers
- Local privilege escalation via the Windows I/O Manager: a variant finding collaboration
These studies mainly focused on the Zw* series of System Service Call. Are there other similar situations that could also cause this kind of logical vulnerability?
The new bug pattern
Actually, it is possible. When the device driver uses IoBuildDeviceIoControlRequest to create a DeviceIoControl IRP, it is easy to encounter such issues if not careful. This API is primarily used by kernel drivers to call IOCTL, and it helps you build the IRP. Subsequently, calling IofCallDriver allows you to call IOCTL within the kernel driver. On Microsoft Learn, there is a particular passage worth noting.
By default, if you do not explicitly set the RequestorMode, it will directly call IOCTL with KernelMode.
Following this approach, we revisited Kernel Streaming and discovered an intriguing aspect.
The function where IoBuildDeviceIoControlRequest is used in Kernel Streaming is in ks!KsSynchronousIoControlDevice and it obviously involves calling IOCTL in the kernel using the aforementioned method. However, it appears that Irp->RequestorMode is properly set here, and different values are assigned based on the parameters of KsSynchronousIoControlDevice. This will be a convenient library for kernel streaming driver developers.
However…
ks!CKsPin::GetState
ks!SerializePropertySet
ks!UnserializePropertySet
We found that in Kernel Streaming, all functions using KsSynchronousIoControlDevice consistently use KernelMode(0). At this point, we can carefully inspect whether the places it is used have any security issues. Therefore, we convert the bug pattern in Kernel Streaming into the following points:
- Utilized
KsSynchronousIoControlDevice - Controllable InputBuffer & OutputBuffer
- The second processing of IOCTL relies on RequestorMode for security checks
![]()
Following this pattern, we quickly found the first vulnerability.
The vulnerability & exploitation
CVE-2024-35250
This vulnerability is also the one we used in Pwn2Own Vancouver 2024. In the IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY of Kernel Streaming, to increase efficiency, KSPROPERTY_TYPE_SERIALIZESET and KSPROPERTY_TYPE_UNSERIALIZESET requests are provided to allow users to operate on multiple properties through a single call. These types of requests will be broken down into multiple calls by the KsPropertyHandler. For more details, refer to this one.
It is implemented in ks.sys
When handling property in ks.sys, if the KSPROPERTY_TYPE_UNSERIALIZESET flag is provided, ks!UnserializePropertySet will handle your request.
Let’s take a look at UnserializePropertySet.
unsigned__int64__fastcallUnserializePropertySet(PIRPirp,KSIDENTIFIER*UserProvideProperty,KSPROPERTY_SET*propertyset_){...New_KsProperty_req=ExAllocatePoolWithTag(NonPagedPoolNx,InSize,0x7070534Bu);...memmove(New_KsProperty_req,CurrentStackLocation->Parameters.DeviceIoControl.Type3InputBuffer,InSize);//------[1] ...status=KsSynchronousIoControlDevice(CurrentStackLocation->FileObject,0,CurrentStackLocation->Parameters.DeviceIoControl.IoControlCode,New_KsProperty_req,InSize,OutBuffer,OutSize,&BytesReturned);//-----------[2]...}You can see that during the processing, the original request is first copied into a newly allocated buffer at [1]. Subsequently, this buffer is used to call the new IOCTL using KsSynchronousIoControlDevice at [2]. Both New_KsProperty_req and OutBuffer are contents provided by the user.
The flow when calling UnserializePropertySet is roughly as illustrated below:
When calling IOCTL, as shown in step 2 of the diagram, the I/O Manager will set Irp->RequestorMode to UserMode(1). Until step 6, it will check if the requested property by the user exists in the KS object. If the property exists in the KS object and is set with KSPROPERTY_TYPE_UNSERIALIZESET, UnserializePropertySet will be used to handle the specified property.
Next, in step 7, KsSynchronousIoControlDevice will be used to perform the IOCTL again. At this point, the new Irp->RequestorMode will become KernelMode(0), and the subsequent processing will be the same as a typical IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY. This part will not be elaborated further.
As a result, we now have a primitive that allows us to perform arbitrary IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY operations. Next, we need to look for places where it might be possible to achieve EoP (Elevation of Privilege).
The EoP
The first thing you will likely notice is the entry point ksthunk.sys.
Let’s take a look at ksthunk!CKSThunkDevice::DispatchIoctl.
__int64__fastcallCKSThunkDevice::DispatchIoctl(CKernelFilterDevice*a1,IRP*irp,unsignedinta3,NTSTATUS*a4){...if(IoIs32bitProcess(irp)&&irp->RequestorMode)//------[3]{//Convert 32-bit requests to 64-bit requests}elseif(CurrentStackLocation->Parameters.DeviceIoControl.IoControlCode==IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY){returnCKSThunkDevice::CheckIrpForStackAdjustmentNative((__int64)a1,irp,v11,a4)//-----[4];}}You can see that ksthunk will first determine whether the request is from a WoW64 Process. If it is, it will convert the original 32-bit Requests into 64-bit at [3]. If the original request is already 64-bit, it will call CKSThunkDevice::CheckIrpForStackAdjustmentNative at [4] to pass it down.
__int64__fastcallCKSThunkDevice::CheckIrpForStackAdjustmentNative(__int64a1,struct_IRP*irp,__int64a3,int*a4){...if(*(_OWORD*)&Type3InputBuffer->Set==*(_OWORD*)&KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream&&!type3inputbuf.Id&&(type3inputbuf.Flags&2)!=0)//-----[5] {if(irp->RequestorMode)//-------[6]{v14=0xC0000010;}else{UserBuffer=(unsignedint*)irp->UserBuffer;...v14=(*(__int64(__fastcall**)(_QWORD,_QWORD,__int64*))(Type3InputBuffer+0x38))(// call Type3InputBuffer+0x38*UserBuffer,0LL,v19);//------------[7]}}}We can notice that if we give the property set as KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream, there is additional processing at [5]. At [6], we can see that it first checks whether Irp->RequestorMode is KernelMode(0). If it is called from user, it will directly return an error.
It should be pretty obvious here that if we call IOCTL with KSPROPERTY_TYPE_UNSERIALIZESET and specify the KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream property, it will be KernelMode(0) here. Additionally, it will directly use the input provided by the user as a function call at [7]. Even the first parameter is controllable.
After writing the PoC, we confirmed our results.
Some people might wonder, under what device or situation would have KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream? Actually, most audio devices will have it, primarily used for setting DRM-related content.
Exploitation
Once arbitrary calls are achieved, accomplishing EoP is not too difficult. Although protections such as kCFG, kASLR, and SMEP will be encountered, the only protection that needs to be dealt with under Medium IL is kCFG.
- kCFG
- kASLR
- NtQuerySystemInformation
- SMEP
- Reuse Kernel Code
- …
Bypass kCFG
Our goal here is straightforward: to create an arbitrary write primitive from a legitimate function, which can then be used to achieve EoP through typical methods like replacing the current process token with system token or abusing the token privilege.
It is intuitive to look directly for legitimate functions with names containing set, as they are more likely to do arbitrary writing. We directly take the export functions from ntoskrnl.exe to see if there are any good gadgets, as these functions are generally legitimate.
We quickly found RtlSetAllBits.
It is a very useful gadget and a legitimate function in kCFG. Additionally, it only requires controlling the first parameter _RTL_BITMAP.
struct_RTL_BITMAP{ULONGSizeOfBitMap;ULONG*Buffer;};We can assign the buffer to any address and specify the size, allowing us to set up a range of bits entirely. At this point, we are almost done. As long as Token->Privilege is fully set up, we can use the Abuse Privilege method to achieve EoP.
However, before the Pwn2Own event, we created a new Windows 11 23H2 VM on Hyper-V and ran the exploit. The result was a failure. It failed at the open device stage.
After investigation, we discovered that Hyper-V does not have an audio device by default, causing the exploit to fail.
In Hyper-V, only MSKSSRV is present by default. However, MSKSSRV does not have the KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream property, which prevents us from successfully exploiting this EoP vulnerability. Therefore, we must find other ways to trigger it or discover new vulnerabilities. We decided to review the entire process again to see if there were any other exploitable vulnerabilities.
CVE-2024-30084
After re-examining, it was found that IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY uses Neither I/O to transmit data, which means it uses the input buffer for data processing directly. Generally speaking, this method is not recommended as it often leads to double fetch issues.
From the above figure of KspPropertyHandler, we can see that after the user calls IOCTL, the Type3InputBuffer is directly copied into a newly allocated buffer, containing the KSPROPERTY structure. This GUID in the structure is then used to check if the property set exists in the device. If it does, it will proceed to call UnserializePropertySet.
Let’s take another look at UnserializePropertySet.
It once again copies the user-provided data from Type3InputBuffer as the input for the new IOCTL. Clearly, there exists a double fetch vulnerability here, so we have modified the entire process, as shown in the following diagram.
When we initially send IOCTL_KS_PROPERTY, we use the existing property KSPROPSETID_Service of MSKSSRV for subsequent operations. As shown in step 6 of the diagram, a copy of KSPROPERTY is first made into the SystemBuffer, and then this property is used to check whether it is in the support list of the KS object. Since MSKSSRV supports it, it will then call UnserializePropertySet.
After calling UnserializePropertySet, due to the double fetch vulnerability, we can change KSPROPSETID_Service with KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream between the check and use phases. Subsequently, KSPROPSETID_DrmAudioStream will be used as the request to send IOCTL, thereby triggering the CVE-2024-35250 mentioned above logic flaw. This makes the vulnerability exploitable in any environment.
Finally, we successfully compromised Microsoft Windows 11 during Pwn2Own Vancouver 2024.
After the Pwn2Own event, our investigation revealed that this vulnerability has existed since Windows 7 for nearly 20 years. Moreover, it is highly reliable and has a 100% success rate in exploitation. We strongly recommend that everyone update to the latest version as soon as possible.
To be continued
This article focuses on how we identified the vulnerabilities used in this year’s Pwn2Own and the attack surface analysis of Kernel Streaming. After discovering this vulnerability, we continued our research on this attack surface and found another exploitable vulnerability along with other interesting findings.
Stay tuned for Part II, expected to be published in October of this year.
Reference
- Critically Close to Zero-Day: Exploiting Microsoft Kernel Streaming Service
- Windows Kernel Security - A Deep Dive into Two Exploits Demonstrated at Pwn2Own
- CVE-2023-29360 Analysis
- Racing Round and Round: The Little Bug That Could
- Windows Kernel Logic Bug Class: Access Mode Mismatch in IO Manager
- Hunting for Bugs in Windows Mini-Filter Drivers
- Local Privilege Escalation via the Windows I/O Manager: A Variant Finding & Collaboration
